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\title{Book of the Dead 125 and Egyptian Religion}
\author{Ralph Giles}
\date{\today}

\maketitle

\begin{center}
Term paper for NEST 312,
University of British Columbia.

Due 2018 November 29.
\end{center}

Book of the Dead, Chapter (or spell) 125 contains the ``negative confession''
before Osiris and a jury of other deities where the deceased is judged
worthy of continuing in the afterlife.
It is a central text from the book, and has much to tell us about
religion in ancient Egypt.

\uline{Chapter 125 demonstrates the importance of word and action to
maintain {\translit mꜣꜥt} in ancient Egyptian religion.} The character of the
deceased uses secret knowledge and asserts correct behaviour to
be granted the status of the justified dead, magically joining
the social hierarchy of Osiris and the solar cycle of rebirth.

The {\it Book of the Dead}, the {\it \translit prt m hrw} or
{\it The Book of Going Forth by Day} as it's known in Egyptian,
first appeared at the end of the Second Intermediate Period,
in the 17th Dynasty, and was used in funerary material culture
through Roman times.
\autocite[pp. 13-15]{Hornung1999}

A ``book'' in the sense that it was a collection of texts, specific
items of which were selected for application to tomb walls, coffins,
amulets and other items, we primarily know the collection from
papyrus scrolls associated with elite burials.
Each chapter describes some element of the underworld and usually
provides instructions and words to recite to obtain powers,
integrate the various components of the self, and pass
safely into the desired afterlife.

The collection of texts developed from the earlier royal traditions
of the Pyramid and Coffin texts. Those slowly spread to non-royal
burials, with innovation on the Royal side to maintain novelty.
\autocite[p. 14]{Hornung1999}
The {\it Book of the Dead} reverses this trend. It was first
found associated with non-royal burials like Kha and Merit
\autocite{KhaMerit2015} and the goldworker of Amun Sobekmose
\autocite{ORourke2016}, but the texts later became common in royal tombs.

When a selection of chapters were written out on papyrus and buried
with the deceased, no expense was spared. An unpublished ostracon
(Gardiner 113, from year 36 of the reign on Rameses II)
reports payments for two different books of the dead. One for 15
{\translit dbn} of copper, and another, perhaps better illustrated,
for 60--100 {\translit dbn}.
\autocite[pp. 245-246]{Janssen1975}
That's comparable to a major piece of jewelry or furniture.
\autocite[p. 374]{Meskell1998}
This tells us that the collection was considered worth significant
effort to include in a burial.

% Chapter 17 associates the dead with the creator god,
% echoes cosmology, shows a tradition of comparison and commentary.
% Chapter 125 resonates with the judgement scene, popular vignette.

One chapter in particular has been fascinating for modern readers.
This is {\it Book of the Dead} Chapter 125 (BD 125), which presents
a scene of judgement before Osiris and a panoply of other gods.
I think this resonates with us because the judgement and sorting
into different afterlives is a feature of Abrahamic religions and
is thus part of the modern cultural context.

It must have been significant for the Egyptians too. The prominent
vignette of the weighing of the heart accompanying this chapter in
Papyrus Ani and Papyrus {\translit ḥw-nfr}, for example, along with
the traditional placement near the end testify to its importance.
However, it was not ubiquitous: the {\it Book of the Dead} found
with Kha and Merit's burial does not have it.
This is unusual enough compared to later periods that
Schiaparelli remarks on it.\autocite[p. 25]{Schiaparelli2007}
The book found separately for Merit does not include it either.
\autocite{BnF53.2}
However, these are early examples before the order became standardized.
\autocite[p. 198]{Taylor2001}

BD 125 was important enough to be selected for inclusion in
royal tombs, reversing the previous direction of historical
diffusion of funerary texts from royal to private burials.
BD 125 first appears in that record in the tomb of
Merenptah.\autocite[KV8, Chamber H]{KV8Map}.
Better preserved examples are the tombs of Ramses VI
\autocite[KV9, Chamber I]{KV9Map}
and Ramses IX.\autocite[KV6, Corridor C]{KV6Map}

The concept of {\translit mꜢꜥt}, meaning Truth, but also order, justice,
with the sense that things are acting according to their proper paths,
was central in Egyptian religion.\autocite[p. 159]{Pinch2002}
The importance of {\translit mꜢꜥt}
is demonstrated by many scenes showing the king presenting {\translit mꜢꜥt}
personified as a goddess to other major gods, like the one at the eastern
high gate at Medinet Habu \autocite[figure 32, p. 82]{Teeter2011}.

In the hymn of the king as sun priest, a pharaoh "creates Truth"
\autocite{Parkinson1991} as part of their eternal purpose. That
is, {\translit sḫpr mꜣꜥt}, for example in BM EA 9953,B1
\autocite{BM9953B} and Luxor Temple, room 17, as transcribed in
\autocite{Assmann1970}.

While pharaoh might "create {\translit mꜣꜥt}," private individuals
more often {\translit jrj mꜣꜥt}, "did the right thing."
In \autocite[p. 128]{Lichtheim1976}'s tranlation of BD 125
from Naville's\autocite{Naville1886} collated edition of the text,
the deceased says, "I have done {\it maat} for the Lord of {\it maat}".
In closing their appeal to the judges of the hall
of Two Truths, the deceased says, ``I live on truth, I swallow down
truth.''\autocite[p. 105]{ORourke2016}
{\translit mꜣꜥt} is then the major focus of the text. It is the
word the character of the deceased uses to summarize their appeal
to their judges, the justification for granting them passage.

Of course its popularity with elite burials may be supported by
the way it enforced hierarchy and conformance to social roles.

Magic and religion had a fluid boundary in ancient Egypt.
Honouring gods and following the correct role should be rewarded.
But secret knowledge and names give power over the supernatual.
% Memphite creation posited Ptah as a creator through this kind
% of power.
Taking a definition of magic as an attempt to control supernatural
forces for personal benefit, we see that BD 125 qualifies.
Like many versions, the papyrus inscribed for the goldworker Sobekmose
begins with the title, in red ink, ``What is said at the arrival at the broad
hall of the two truths.''\autocite[p. 101]{ORourke2016}
It concludes with a promise that the deceased,
saying these words properly, will receive offerings, their descendants
will prosper, they will ``not be restrained from any doorway of the west,''
that they will join the kings in the divine boat, ``in the entourage
of Osiris.''\autocite[p. 106]{ORourke2016} The promise then is that the words
of this chapter will assure a positive experience in the supernatural realm
of the underworld after death. This is perhaps why the chapters of the
{\it Book of the Dead} are often referred to as `spells' in English.
They are intended to create safe passage, staying aggressive creatures
of the underword. ``No misfortune shall befall me on your account...
for I have acted rightly in Egypt.''\autocite[p. 128]{Lichtheim1976}

BD 125 can be divided into several sections. First,
there is an introduction, where deceased greets the
lord of the hall of the Two Truths, and declares knowledge
of that god, knowledge of the names of the forty-two accompanying
gods of judgement.\autocite[p. 124]{Lichtheim1976}

The deceased then begins a general ``negative confession''
reciting a long list of things they have not done, concluding,
``No evil shall befall me in this land...for I know the
names of the gods in it."\autocite[p. 126]{Lichtheim1976}

This is followed by a longer recitation, with each statement
addressed to one of the 42 particular deities. Since a number
are given toponymic epithets, and there are 42 nomes in
the New Kindom period, there is probably a one-to-one correspondence
to between the deities and the nomes. The deceased is thus
asserting their correct behaviour metaphorically before the
whole country.\autocite[p. 101]{ORourke2016}

The second, specific ``negative confession'' is followed by
more general positive assertions of correct behaviour. They
ask the gods of the hall, and Osiris particularly, to judge
them positively, for they are pure and have done all the
correct things.

The various infractions denied range from serious,
``I have not killed people,'' to seemingly minor,
``I have not eavesdropped...I have not run at the mouth.''
\autocite[p. 103]{ORourke2016}
Without more context many are difficult to understand in
detail, although they likely represent some
kind of catalog of incorrect behaviour according to moral
and social standards.

The deceased also says,
``I know you, I know your names.''\autocite[p. 128]{Lichtheim1976}
This is a recurring theme. Names were believed to hold power
in ancient Egypt. We see that here. In the Turin Magical Papyrus,
\autocite{pTurin861} Horus says,
``One is able to work magic for a person by means of their name.''
(Translation from \autocite[p. 31]{Pinch1994}.)

In providing knowledge of god's names, BD 125 grants the
deceased magical power over them. They know the correct
words to say to complete the trial. To me, this seems
almost more important than the correct behaviour in life.
Since BD 125 is a standardized text, it codified knowledge
intended to negotiate the way through judgement for anyone,
regardless of literal guilt or innocence. Together with
the heart scarab spell (BD 30) which asks the heart of
the deceased, ``Do not stand against me at my witness...
Do not say against me: he has done it in truth (about)
what I have done,''\autocite[p. 125]{ORourke2016}
this supports the contention that the declaration of
innocence is not literal, but more like a purification
ritual to cleanse the soul and achieve the correct state
to pass the gate into a more sacred state. Between the
two confessions, the deceased says, ``I am pure,'' four
times.\autocite[p. 102]{ORourke2016} Or perhaps it
instead supports the instructor's suggestion that cheating
was fine if you got away with it. However, both of these
are probably too simplistic.\autocite[p. 79-81]{Assmann2005}
Behaviour in daily life and a magical spell are not the same,
and as humans our adherence to moral codes is contengent
and situational.
In keeping with the multiplicity of approaches in ancient
Egyptian religion, likely people tried for both and hoped for the best.
The ubiquity of the {\it Book of the Dead} over such a
long period of practice suggests having BD 125 in one's burial
provided comfort against the fear of death,
an assurance that both correct behaviour and its appearance
would be rewarded.

After the recitations are two sections where the deceased is
directly challenged by guardian creatures in the hall to
report correct magical actions before they can pass on to
the gate. These are even more difficult to understand, but
are still clearly a demonstration of knowing and acting
according to the formula. They ask the deceased's name, and
the answer is, ``I am the spike of the underside of the papyrus
clump. The one who is in the {\it moringa} tree (is) my name.''
\autocite[p. 105]{ORourke2016} There follows a call and response
about the journey through the underworld, where the guardians
check and the deceased affirms that they have traveled the
correct path and made the correct actions. This is again a
reification of {\translit mꜣꜥt} where things move in their
assigned courses, and that the words and deeds of the deceased
maintain that.

Then the deceased is challenged
by parts of the magical gate through which they must pass
to continue their journey to the afterlife. ``I will not open,
I will not let you pass...unless you tell me my name,'' they say,
and the text gives the correct name for each.\autocite[p. 130]{Lichtheim1976}
The deceased must again give magical names for their self and
their two feet before being able to cross the threshold of the
gate and be introduced. The ritual exchange of names thus estabilishes
the deceased as part of the supernatural community.

After final questions from Thoth, the deceased is allowed to pass.
The ritual and the trial of judgement are successfully completed.

The final section \autocite[p. 131-132]{Lichtheim1976} titles
{\it Instructions for Use}. This describes saying the previous
text when one is in a state of purity, wearing the correct
clothes, perfume, and makeup, to assure that the deceased will join
Osiris and will be provided with a portion of the offerings.

Here we have a frame outside the main text. It is unclear
whether these instructions are also to be performed posthumously,
or if they are instructions to the living, to be performed
by a priest at a ceremony, or relate to writing out the
spell itself to add magical potency to the funerary object.

Throughout, BD 125 provided the deceased with a correct
series of statements and actions, with secret knowledge of
names and forms.
This knowledge is made available through the magic
of literacy, whether in their imagination the deceased
read the scroll, or whether its mere presence conveyed
the secrets of the afterlife.
This knowledge asserts the correct behaviour of the deceased
in life, and compels correct behaviour from the supernatural
community, maintainning religion's contract.
It equipped the dead to confront the challenge of
judgement, showing either way
the power of (written) word and ritual action to maintain
an orderly and advantageous society.

\section{Books of the Dead}

The most famous example is the Papyrus Ani, {\bf BM EA 10470}
Sheet 3 has the judgement vignette.
Very fine cursive hieroglyphs, fine art, and well preserved.
It was 24 meters long when Budge removed it to the British Museum
\autocite[335]{Budge1920} but later cut into sections.

Papyrus {\translit ḥw-nfr} 19th Dynasty, {\bf BM EA 9901,3},
acquired 1852. It is shorter, and also fine art quality.

An early example is the Brooklyn Papyrus, for the gold-worker
Sobekmose.\autocite{ORourke2016} From lower Egypt,
which contrasts to the better-surviving Theban tradition.

Book of the Dead of {\translit ḫꜥy}, Ramessid period, {\bf BM EA 9953,B1},
fragmentary. Contains the hymn of the king as sun priest.

Book of the Dead of Kha and Merit, 18th Dynasty, Turin {\bf S. 8438},
One of the few found intact in a tomb. Doesn't contain BD 125.

Book of the Dead of Merit, 19th Dynasty, {\bf BnF inv.53.2}
inscribed to Kha's partner Merit, but mysteriously found before
the tomb where she was buried. Also doesn't contain BD 125.
2 meters long.

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